More than 4,10,000 people took part in demonstrations across France on Saturday as growing frustration over the cost of living, rising fuel prices and perceived shortcomings in education funding fuelled one of the country's largest waves of protest in recent years.

While many marches began peacefully, tensions escalated later in the day, particularly in Paris, where riot police deployed tear gas and water cannons after groups of demonstrators clashed with security forces. Authorities had mounted a major security operation nationwide in an effort to prevent a repeat of the violent unrest witnessed the previous week.

The French Interior Ministry placed national turnout at 4,10,000 participants, although organisers claimed significantly higher numbers. Large demonstrations were reported in Paris, Lyon, Lille, Marseille, Montpellier, Nantes and Toulouse, highlighting the breadth of public discontent. Across the country, around 70,000 police officers and security personnel were deployed to maintain order.

In Lyon, riot police used tear gas to disperse approximately 150 protesters who attempted to block a major road in an area covered by protest restrictions. Nearly 10,000 people were reported to have marched through the city despite the absence of official authorisation and an expanded ban on gatherings in the city centre. Officials said demonstrators assembled in multiple groups and moved "in a very erratic manner, without any clearly defined objective" throughout the afternoon.

Authorities estimated that roughly 26,000 people joined demonstrations in Toulouse. Violent incidents and confrontations with police were also reported in several other cities, including Lille, Marseille, Montpellier and Nantes, although the scale of unrest was generally lower than the disturbances recorded a week earlier.

Ahead of the demonstrations, Interior Minister Laurent Nunez confirmed that 135 people had been arrested and a range of weapons confiscated. Seized items included metal balls, lead pellets, fireworks, slingshots, steel balls, improvised weapons, airsoft guns and a Japanese katana sword. Despite the precautions, clashes erupted in several locations as authorities sought to prevent disruption and protect businesses from looting and vandalism.

Speaking on the security situation earlier in the day, Nunez said "there has been no major incident" and Paris police described the atmosphere in the capital as "calm" before violence later broke out. Additional preventive measures included security checks and restrictions in sensitive urban areas.

The protests coincided with a two-day convention of Marine Le Pen's National Rally party in Orléans, which became a focal point for demonstrators. Local authorities reported that around 11,000 protesters had gathered in the city by midday, with marchers directing criticism at both Le Pen and President Emmanuel Macron. Protesters carried anti-far-right banners and chanted slogans as the convention unfolded six months before France's presidential election.

The Orléans demonstration drew a broad coalition of participants, including left-wing political leaders, trade unions, student organisations, activists and non-governmental groups such as Amnesty International. At the same convention, Jordan Bardella was re-elected as president of National Rally, with supporters gathering at the Zénith arena and chanting "Marine for President".

The nationwide mobilisation grew out of student protests that began more than a month ago over school conditions, teacher shortages, timetable concerns and inequalities between public and private education. 

What started as a student-led campaign has expanded into a wider movement involving trade unions, civil society organisations and members of the Yellow Vests movement, transforming into a broader protest against living costs and economic pressures.

The latest demonstrations followed a week of serious unrest that saw public buildings attacked, shops looted and thousands arrested. Against that backdrop, President Emmanuel Macron convened a meeting of his defence council, bringing together senior ministers and officials as authorities monitored the evolving situation and prepared for further challenges ahead of next year's presidential election.