Over the past decade, China has become the dominant force behind Pakistan’s military modernisation, fundamentally transforming the country’s defence landscape after the United States curtailed its military support. Until 2010, the U.S. was Pakistan’s principal defence partner, providing significant military aid and hardware.

However, mounting frustration in Washington over Islamabad’s support for the Afghan Taliban, tolerance of the Haqqani network, and use of militant proxies for regional influence led to a decisive shift. By 2016, the U.S. had effectively halted arms sales to Pakistan, citing concerns over terrorism and Pakistan’s nuclear ambitions.

Into this strategic void stepped China, rapidly expanding its role as Pakistan’s primary defence supplier. Between 2014 and 2024, China sold Pakistan over $9 billion worth of weapons, now accounting for more than 80% of Islamabad’s military imports, according to SIPRI data. This influx of Chinese military hardware has reshaped Pakistan’s armed forces across all branches:

Army: Chinese-made VT-4 main battle tanks (locally named "Haider") and SH-15 155mm howitzers have become central to Pakistan’s land warfare capabilities, providing modern platforms to counter India’s armoured and artillery forces. Chinese technology has also enabled upgrades to Pakistan’s indigenous Al-Khalid tanks, further deepening military-technical integration.

Air Defence: The LY-80 (HQ-16 export version) surface-to-air missile system, with nine batteries inducted since 2017, has significantly enhanced Pakistan’s ability to defend against low- and medium-altitude aerial threats. More advanced systems, such as the HQ-9B, have also been supplied.

Navy And Air Force: China has provided advanced platforms such as J-10CE fighter jets, Type 054A guided-missile frigates, and long-range reconnaissance drones, bolstering Pakistan’s maritime and aerial deterrence capabilities. Co-development projects like the JF-17 fighter jet exemplify the depth of technological collaboration.

Beyond hardware, the China-Pakistan defence partnership encompasses joint exercises, training, and intelligence sharing. Annual drills such as the "Warrior" series and regular naval exercises serve to enhance interoperability, professional skills, and readiness for counter-terrorism and conventional operations. China’s assistance also extends to infrastructure and technology, including the construction of military bunkers, encrypted communication networks, and advanced radar installations along sensitive borders.

This deepening military relationship is closely linked to the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a flagship project under Beijing’s Belt and Road Initiative. Security cooperation has intensified to protect Chinese nationals and critical infrastructure in Pakistan, particularly in the face of insurgent threats and external attempts to destabilise CPEC projects. The partnership is often described as "ironclad," with China positioning itself as Pakistan’s only reliable ally in the face of Western disengagement.

However, this heavy reliance on China comes with strategic costs for Pakistan. The country’s ability to diversify its defense suppliers has diminished, raising concerns about its strategic autonomy and the risk of becoming a proxy for China’s broader ambitions in South Asia. Critics warn that Pakistan’s dependence on Chinese weaponry and political support could constrain its foreign policy options and limit its leverage with other global powers.

For India, these developments are deeply concerning. The rapid modernisation of Pakistan’s military with advanced Chinese systems alters the regional balance of power and introduces new uncertainties into the India-Pakistan rivalry. Indian defence planners are closely monitoring the growing interoperability between Chinese and Pakistani forces, viewing it as a significant challenge to regional stability and deterrence.

China’s defence partnership with Pakistan has evolved into a comprehensive and deeply integrated alliance that extends far beyond the simple transfer of military hardware. Over the past decade, China has become the dominant supplier of Pakistan’s military equipment, accounting for over 80% of Pakistan’s arms imports and fundamentally transforming the country’s defence capabilities. This transformation is not limited to the provision of advanced fighter jets, missile systems, and naval vessels, but also encompasses joint development, technology transfer, and extensive military exercises.

The two countries regularly conduct joint air, sea, and land exercises, including simulated combat missions, which have significantly improved interoperability between their armed forces. Annual drills such as "Sea Guardian" and joint flight missions are designed to deepen combat synergy and are often described by officials as evidence of an “unbreakable battlefield brotherhood”. These exercises are complemented by high-level military exchanges and visits, reflecting a strategic commitment to maintaining close operational ties.

A hallmark of this partnership is the co-development of sophisticated weapons systems. The JF-17 Block-III fighter jet, for instance, is a product of joint engineering between Chinese and Pakistani firms. This aircraft features advanced avionics, including a Chinese-made active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, improved digital flight controls, and a powerful new engine, making it a “fourth generation plus” platform that bridges the gap between affordability and advanced capability. Other systems, such as the HQ-9B surface-to-air missile, are built with Chinese technology and provide Pakistan with modern air defence capabilities.

China’s influence now permeates every branch of Pakistan’s military. The Pakistan Air Force fields Chinese-origin J-10C and JF-17 jets equipped with long-range PL-15 missiles, while the Navy operates Chinese-built submarines and Type 054A/P frigates, enhancing Pakistan’s ability to project power in the Indian Ocean. On land, Chinese VT-4 tanks and SH-15 howitzers are deployed along sensitive borders, and Chinese surveillance technology, including encrypted communications and advanced radars, gives Pakistan a significant edge in intelligence gathering and electronic warfare.

This strategic alignment is rooted in a shift away from the United States, which curtailed arms sales to Pakistan due to Islamabad’s ties to militant groups and concerns over democratic reforms. China seized this opportunity to position itself as Pakistan’s primary defence partner, filling the void left by the West and cementing its role as the country’s “all-weather” ally.

Strategic Doubts

However, the effectiveness of this partnership is now under intense scrutiny amid renewed India-Pakistan tensions. Recent conflicts have seen the operational debut of several Chinese-made systems, with mixed results. While Pakistan’s use of Chinese jets and missiles has drawn global attention, some analysts argue that alleged Indian aircraft losses may reflect issues of integration and readiness rather than outright technological superiority. Conversely, India’s successful missile strikes on Pakistani territory, despite the presence of Chinese-supplied radar and air defence systems, have raised questions about the real-world performance and reliability of Beijing’s military exports.

Ultimately, the China-Pakistan defence relationship has become a proxy testbed for Chinese versus Western military technology, with broader implications for regional deterrence and the strategic balance in Asia.

However, India's high level of operational efficiency and superior equipment platforms and the abject failure of Chinese made weapons has exposed Pakistan’s made-in-China systems shield.

As India tilts further toward Western partners and Pakistan deepens its embrace of Chinese support, the stakes for regional security-and for the credibility of China’s defence industry-have never been higher. Every new system, joint exercise, or operational miscalculation now has the potential to reshape not just bilateral ties, but the future of Asian geopolitics.

China’s emergence as the backbone of Pakistan’s military hardware is the result of a deliberate strategic realignment following the U.S. withdrawal from the defence partnership. This shift has not only transformed Pakistan’s military capabilities but also deepened its dependence on Beijing, with far-reaching implications for regional security and great power competition in South Asia.

Agencies