India’s journey into space began in 1969, a period when global space exploration was dominated by superpowers like the United States and the Soviet Union. Despite limited resources, India’s vision was shaped by the establishment of the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) in 1962, under the leadership of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai. INCOSPAR, operating within the Department of Atomic Energy, laid the groundwork for India’s space ambitions by focusing on the peaceful use of space technology for national development.

The first major milestone came in 1963, when India launched its first sounding rocket from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station in Kerala, marking its entry into the global space arena. Over the next few years, India invested in building the necessary infrastructure and expertise, including the establishment of the Space Science and Technology Centre in 1965 and the first Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station in 1967.

In 1969, INCOSPAR was superseded by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), which centralized India’s space activities and set the stage for rapid progress. The 1970s were transformative: India’s first satellite, Aryabhata, was launched in 1975 with Soviet assistance, a defining moment that demonstrated India’s growing scientific capabilities. This was followed by the development of indigenous launch vehicles, starting with the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV), which successfully placed the Rohini satellite into orbit in 1980, making India the seventh nation to achieve this feat.

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, ISRO focused on self-reliance, developing the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), which enabled India to launch heavier and more complex satellites. These advancements not only supported India’s own communication, remote sensing, and meteorological needs but also positioned ISRO as a reliable and cost-effective launch partner for other countries.

ISRO’s journey from launching Aryabhata, its first satellite, in 1975 to executing complex interplanetary and lunar missions has positioned India among the world’s top spacefaring nations.

ISRO’s hallmark is its frugal approach to space exploration. This philosophy, rooted in necessity due to international technology restrictions and domestic resource constraints, has evolved into a core organisational strength. Former ISRO Chairman S Somanath emphasised that thrift is ingrained in ISRO’s culture, driving every aspect of mission planning and execution.

This mindset is reflected in several key operational strategies:

Rigorous attention to detail throughout mission lifecycles
Smart optimisation of designs and processes
Maximised resource utilisation without compromising mission integrity
Emphasis on simulations over expensive hardware testing
Recycling and reuse of components wherever feasible

A defining feature of ISRO’s efficiency is its commitment to in-house technology development. Unlike agencies such as NASA, which often outsource satellite manufacturing, ISRO manages most operations internally, allowing for tighter control over costs and critical technologies. Salaries and labour costs are significantly lower than in Western countries, and indigenous manufacturing further reduces expenses. Software development, for example, is handled entirely by ISRO’s own scientists and engineers, eliminating expensive licensing fees and fostering expertise across multiple domains.

ISRO also employs a modular design philosophy, enabling standardised components to be adapted across diverse missions. This approach reduces development time, cuts costs, and allows for rapid response to new objectives. The organisation’s workhorse launch vehicles, such as the PSLV, are celebrated for their reliability and ability to carry multiple payloads, further optimising resource use. ISRO’s knack for innovation is legendary, and it’s the secret sauce behind the agency’s cost control.

The results of this frugal innovation are striking. ISRO’s Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) was completed for just $74 million, a fraction of the cost of similar Western missions and even less than some Hollywood films. Chandrayaan-3, which achieved a historic soft landing near the lunar south pole in 2023, was accomplished for about ₹632.8.5 Crores (roughly $75 million), making India the first nation to land in this challenging region and the fourth overall to achieve a lunar soft landing. These missions have delivered significant scientific returns, such as confirming the presence of sulphur at the lunar south pole and providing detailed imagery and atmospheric data from Mars.

ISRO’s cost-effectiveness extends to its annual budget, which is dramatically lower than those of NASA or China’s space agency. Yet, ISRO consistently delivers high-impact missions, often achieving similar objectives at a fraction of the expenditure. This efficiency is further enhanced by mission planning strategies like using Earth’s gravity for slingshot manoeuvres, which save fuel and reduce launch costs.

Beyond scientific exploration, ISRO has become a catalyst for India’s burgeoning space economy. The creation of NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) as ISRO’s commercial arm has enabled greater private sector participation, technology transfer, and commercialisation of space technologies. The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Center (IN-SPACe) acts as a regulatory and facilitative body, supporting over 330 private entities and start-ups in the space sector. These reforms have driven a surge in space technology start-ups and are expected to boost India’s share of the global space economy from $8.4 billion in 2022 to a targeted $44 billion by 2033.

ISRO’s technological advancements are not limited to cost savings. The agency is pioneering reusable launch vehicle technology, demonstrated through successful autonomous landing experiments, and has mastered space docking technology, making India the fourth nation with such capability. These achievements are foundational for future missions, including the planned Bharatiya Antriksh Station (BAS) by 2035, which will support long-term human presence in space.

By 2024, ISRO had completed more than 325 satellite launches, serving over 30 international clients—a testament to its technical prowess and operational efficiency. The organization’s philosophy of “doing more with less” has become its hallmark, allowing India to achieve ambitious goals with modest budgets. This approach has led to globally recognized achievements, such as the Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan missions, and the successful landing of Chandrayaan-3 on the Moon’s south pole in 2023.

International collaboration is another cornerstone of ISRO’s strategy. Joint missions with NASA (such as NISAR), JAXA, ESA, and CNES have expanded India’s scientific reach and fostered global knowledge exchange, while also leveraging shared resources to keep costs low.

In summary, ISRO’s leadership in space exploration is defined by:

Pioneering cost-effective, high-impact missions
Emphasis on indigenous technology and modular design
Strategic public-private partnerships and commercialisation
Commitment to societal benefits through satellite applications in agriculture, disaster management, and education
Ambitious plans for human spaceflight and a national space station
Strong international collaborations that enhance capabilities and global standing

The Growing Commercial Space Sector

India’s commercial space sector has undergone a remarkable transformation in recent years, emerging as a vibrant ecosystem driven by private enterprise, policy reforms, and technological innovation. Once dominated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the industry now features a dynamic mix of start-ups and established players, with companies like Skyroot Aerospace and Agnikul Cosmos leading the charge in developing indigenous launch vehicles and satellite technologies. These private firms are no longer merely relying on ISRO’s infrastructure; instead, they are investing in their own launch pads, manufacturing facilities, and mission control centres, signalling a shift toward self-reliance and global competitiveness.

The sector’s growth is reflected in its market valuation: from approximately $7 billion in 2023, the Indian commercial space market is projected to surpass $12 billion by 2025, with ambitious targets set to reach $44 billion by 2033. This rapid expansion is underpinned by the government’s proactive policy measures, notably the Indian Space Policy 2023, which has eased restrictions, facilitated technology transfers, and opened access to critical launch facilities and technical expertise for private players. Institutions such as IN-SPACe and NSIL have played pivotal roles in fostering collaboration between public and private sectors, further accelerating industry momentum.

The rise of private start-ups has catalysed a wave of innovation across the value chain—from rocket launches and satellite manufacturing to downstream data analytics and communication services. Skyroot Aerospace, for example, has successfully tested engines for its Vikram series of rockets, while Agnikul Cosmos has built its own launchpad and achieved significant technological milestones, including the launch of the Agnibaan Sub-Orbital Technology Demonstrator in 2024. Other start-ups like Pixxel, Dhruva Space, and Astrogate Labs are making strides in satellite imaging, communication, and high-speed data transfer, positioning India as a key player in the global small satellite market.

This commercial boom is not only attracting significant domestic and foreign investment but also generating employment and fostering a culture of high-tech entrepreneurship. The sector has already created tens of thousands of direct jobs and millions of indirect opportunities, while contributing substantially to India’s GDP. The focus on satellite communication, particularly through Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) constellations, is expected to play a crucial role in bridging the digital divide, enhancing rural connectivity, and supporting flagship national initiatives like Digital India and BharatNet.

The Impact of India's Space Program

India’s space odyssey stands out not just for its engineering achievements, but for its commitment to using space technology for societal benefit—improving communication, disaster management, agriculture, and education.

Today, ISRO is recognised as one of the world’s leading space agencies, admired for its innovation, resilience, and the ability to democratise access to space for developing nations. The trajectory of India’s space program is a powerful narrative of vision, perseverance, and the relentless pursuit of self-reliance, transforming the country from a fledgling player into a global space leader.

ISRO’s journey demonstrates that ground breaking achievements in space are possible through vision, resourcefulness, and relentless pursuit of scientific excellence, even with limited resources. This unique model not only propels India’s space ambitions but also inspires other nations to pursue affordable and sustainable paths to space exploration.

IDN (With Agency Inputs)